Russian Information Warfare: Explaining Defense Logic, Roots, and Strategies

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Faculty of Theology, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran

2 Master of Media Management, Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcaster University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Introduction: In the twenty-first century, information has emerged as an autonomous domain of conflict, functioning as a strategic battlefield rather than merely a supplementary instrument for political or military action. Russia’s confrontation with the West, particularly the United States and NATO, illustrates this transformation clearly. The dominant Western narrative depicts Russia as an aggressive actor employing propaganda, cyberattacks, troll networks, and disinformation to undermine democratic institutions, exploit social divisions, and expand geopolitical influence. From this standpoint, Moscow’s actions appear as coordinated assaults on the liberal international order. Yet such interpretations often overlook the strategic logic shaping Russian behavior. From the Kremlin’s perspective, many asymmetric intelligence and information activities constitute defensive responses to perceived existential threats. NATO enlargement, “color revolutions” and the securitization of the Euro-Atlantic environment reinforce a deeply embedded sense of encirclement within Russian strategic culture. Cold War legacies-particularly Soviet “active measures” and the concept of “reflexive control”-continue to frame information operations as tools for protecting sovereignty and identity rather than instruments of pure aggression. This study challenges prevailing Western assumptions by tracing the historical, doctrinal, and strategic foundations of Russian information warfare and arguing that these campaigns often operate as defensive counter-narratives.
Research question: The main question asks to what extent Russia’s information warfare can be interpreted as a defensive counter-narrative responding to Western policies and discourses, rather than as unprovoked aggression. Existing literature focuses predominantly on how Russia conducts cyber operations, disinformation campaigns, and media manipulation, while paying limited attention to the underlying motivations. This study shifts the focus toward the doctrinal foundations, security perceptions, and cultural-historical roots that shape Moscow’s information strategy.
Research hypothesis: Russian information warfare reflects a defensive, asymmetric strategy rooted in a siege mentality and post–Cold War insecurity, employing defensive, reflexive control, cyber, and narrative tools to deter threats and offset weaknesses.
Methodology and theoretical framework: This research employs qualitative narrative analysis to examine how Russian intelligence and information activities are interpreted, justified, and normalized. Unlike quantitative approaches that emphasize frequency, scale, or network metrics, narrative analysis reveals meaning, structure, and function in texts produced by state and non-state actors. The corpus includes doctrines, official statements, analytical reports, and policy documents on Russian information operations from 2014 to 2025, alongside Western responses. Data collection relies on documentary and library-based sources. The theoretical framework integrates strategic culture theory, particularly Snyder’s emphasis on historical vulnerability, distrust of the West, and the “besieged fortress” mindset, with Jervis’s security dilemma, explaining how defensive actions may be misinterpreted as offensive, thereby generating escalation.
Results and discussion: The findings indicate that Russian information warfare constitutes a coherent and historically embedded strategy rather than opportunistic aggression. It operates across three interrelated dimensions: historical continuity, doctrinal evolution, and operational practice. Historically, Russia has long regarded information as central to statecraft; Soviet-era institutions normalized manipulation as a permanent feature of conflict. Experiences such as the Chechen wars reinforced the importance of narrative dominance, demonstrating how military success could be undermined by hostile framing. Doctrinal evolution after Georgia (2008) and Ukraine (2014) formalized information as a critical battlefield, emphasizing reflexive control and cognitive targeting. The doctrine of “active defense” legitimizes preventive measures abroad as homeland protection, explaining why actions perceived as aggressive in the West are understood in Moscow as deterrence. Operationally, Russia employs a dense ecosystem of state agencies, intelligence services, media outlets, online platforms, and cyber units, using techniques such as information preemption, narrative flooding, hacking, and exploitation of frozen conflicts. These practices are anchored in a strategic narrative portraying Russia as a victim of Western encirclement. The analysis reveals a self-reinforcing dynamic: each side views its own behavior as defensive while interpreting the other as hostile, deepening mistrust and sustaining escalation.
Conclusion: Russia’s information warfare is best understood as a defensive counter-narrative rooted in historical vulnerability, siege culture, and asymmetric adaptation. Although tactics such as cyber operations and disinformation often appear offensive, they are framed as mechanisms to preserve sovereignty and deter perceived threats. Paradoxically, this defensive logic reproduces the security dilemma it seeks to escape, as mutual suspicion entrenches escalation. By integrating strategic culture and narrative analysis, this study moves beyond simplistic offensive–defensive binaries and underscores the importance of addressing narrative dynamics in efforts toward de-escalation.

Keywords

References

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