Neo-Ottomanism and Transformation of Türkiye’s Geopolitical Outlook on West Asia

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Professor, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

2 M.A. in International Relations, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Introduction: Throughout the Cold War, Türkiye’s Kemalist geopolitical outlook necessitated an alliance with the West and fostered a comparatively passive approach to regional developments, particularly within West Asia. The ascent of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) to power, however, underscored the imperative to re-evaluate the country’s geopolitical definition. According to the new elite, Türkiye needed to extricate itself from dependency on the West and its Western interests. Instead, the focus shifted towards pursuing an assertive foreign policy in its immediate neighborhood with a particular emphasis on West Asia. The primary objective of this study is to explain the transition toward this new geopolitical posture and, by extension, the resultant shift in Türkiye’s foreign policy. This transformation is particularly significant for both regional politics and the broader landscape of international relations.
Research question: How did the transformation of Türkiye’s geopolitical view of West Asia become possible between 2003 and 2025?
Hypothesis: The core argument presented here is that the redefinition of national identity from a Pro-Western stance to a Neo-Ottomanist one and the subsequent evolution of understandings of national interests enabled the changes in Türkiye’s geopolitical perspective on West Asia.
Methodology and theoretical framework: The theoretical underpinings of this study are firmly rooted in Constructivism. From this perspective, alterations in foreign policy, encompassing geopolitical understandings and positions, are attributable to shifts in identity. In this context, the insights of scholars such as Ted Hopf and Michael Barnett, who emphasize the significance of domestic influences and, critically, the processes in which identities are formed, re-formed, and transformed, are instrumental in explaining Türkiye’s foreign policy evolution. Hopf, in particular, views the domestic social environment as a crucible for the redefinition by elites and decision-makers. Barnett complements this by underscoring the significance and agency of domestic identity resources, taking into account the identity debates within countries and the political philosophies of ruling elites.
The methodology employed in this article focuses on clarifying the causal mechanisms inherent in the process of change. Consequently, process tracing in this study involves an examination of the causal pathways connecting shifts in identity to transformations in foreign policy.
Results and discussion: Kemalism led to a detachment from the Middle East/West Asia, the Islamic world, and the Arab world. The Kemalist discourse or ideology, however, was progressively challenged by intellectual currents that lauded and reinterpreted the Ottoman past, advocating for a return to its core values. Among the most influential thinkers in this intellectual milieu was Necip Fazıl Kısakürek (1904–1983), who proposed a revisionist historical interpretation of the Ottoman era as a counter-narrative to Kemalism. In his framework, Sunni Islam was posited as the primary source of national identity, Western cultural influences were largely eschewed and the perceived superiority of Islamic culture was emphasized. In this re-evaluation of Ottomanism, often termed Neo-Ottomanism, Kısakürek’s Islamism also integrated Turkish nationalism.
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has, on numerous occasions, articulated his intellectual and theoretical affinity for Kısakürek. The emergent generation of Islamists, including Erdoğan, have largley rejected integration with the West, advocating instead for robust relations with neighboring and predominantly Muslim countries. The Justice and Development Party, under Erdoğan's leadership, has redefined Türkiye’s national identity through the incorporation of Neo-Ottomanist tenets. The influence of Neo-Ottomanist policies has extended beyond the external realm to spread throughout Turkish society and national consciousness over the past two decades. From a foreign policy perspective, the fusion of Turkish and Islamic elements within Neo-Ottomanism has become the dominant paradigm in reshaping the country’s geopolitical outlook. Within this paradigm, AKP elites, by presenting a new interpretation of national identity and redefining national interests, have strategically pivoted Türkiye's geopolitical focus towards its neighboring states and significant regional state and non-state actors in West Asia.
Following Erdogan's critical remarks in 2008, the “lower chair crisis”, the Mavi Marmara incident, Turkish policies concerning Iran's nuclear program became evident in its opposition alongside Brazil and Iran, in the interim agreement on Iran’s nuclear program in 2010. Post-Arab Spring, Erdoğan's administration demonstrated opposition to the ouster of Mohamed Morsi in Egypt and provided substantial support to Qatar during its blockade in 2017. Beyond Erdoğan's extensive engagement with Hamas leadership, Türkiye severed diplomatic ties with Israel in May 2024. During this period, a significant point of contention between Ankara and Washington involved Türkiye's alleged role in facilitating sanctions circumvention for Iran and its cooperation with Iranian businessman Reza Zarrab.  Furthermore, Türkiye has undertaken extensive involvement in the Syrian crisis, participating in the “Astana Process” in conjunction with Russia and Iran. Ultimately, by December 2024, Türkiye emerged as a pivotal factor in regime change in the Syrian regime change dynamics, marking the inception of a competitive and conflictual relationship with Israel within that country.
Conclusion: Over the past two decades, as Türkiye has pursued a more independent foreign policy orientation, its sense of responsibility towards Western issues has demonstrably waned. Erdogan's political philosophy represents a natural and predictable evolution from Kemalism, the moderate Neo-Ottomanism of Turgut Özal, and the more radical Islamism of Necmettin Erbakan. A salient observation is the inherent identity and civilizational divergence between Türkiye and the West. In contrast to the top-down authoritarian attempts under Kemalism to deny, conceal, or at least diminish this difference, the Justice and Development Party has successfully integrated national and state identity through a pragmatic Islamist approach. This dynamic illustrates the dialectical interplay between domestic ideational forces and foreign policy outcomes.

Keywords

References

فارسی
رئیسی‌نژاد، آرش و محمدهادی خان‌محمدی (1403)، «حضور ترکیه در آسیای مرکزی و پیامدهای آن برای ایران»، مطالعات اوراسیای مرکزی، دورۀ 17، شمارۀ 1، صص. 153-175، (doi: 10.22059/jcep.2024.370631.450189).
رویس اسمیت، کریستین (1400)، «سازه‌انگاری»، در اشکات برچیل و دیگران، نظریه‌های روابط بین‌الملل، ترجمۀ حمیرا مشیرزاده و روح الله طالبی آرانی، چاپ پنجم، تهران: میزان.
مشیرزاده، حمیرا (1403)، مبانی نظری تبیین و تحلیل سیاست خارجی، چاپ پنجم، تهران: سمت.
مشیرزاده، حمیرا (1402)، تحول در نظریه‌های روابط بین‌الملل، چاپ هفدهم، تهران: سمت.
ونت، الکساندر (1392)، نظریۀ اجتماعی روابط بین‌الملل، ترجمۀ حمیرا مشیرزاده، چاپ سوم، تهران: چاپ و انتشارات وزارت امور خارجه.
English
Akgündoğdu, Sude (2023), How Street Interviews Spread Anti–Syrian Refugee Sentiment, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Available at: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/turkish-backlash-how-street-interviews-spread-anti-syrian-refugee-sentiment, (Accessed on: 27/8/2025).
Akyol, Mostafa (2011), “Turkey’s Maturing Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 90, Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2011-07-07/turkeys-maturing-foreign-policy, (Accessed on: 25/8/2025).
Alrmizan, Mohammed (2022), Turkish Foreign Policy in Central Asia in the Era of Erdoğan: The Convergence of Pan-Turkism, Pragmatism, and Islamism, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Available at: https://kfcris.com/pdf/fb31accd3b812c16524fe7dc819518b26295e253c6fb6.pdf, (Accessed on: 14/8/2025).
Altunışık, Meliha Benli (2023), “Domestic Sources of AKP’s Foreign Policy Toward the MENA Region: Ideology and Pragmatism”, in: Özkeçeci-Taner, B., Akgül Açıkmeşe, S. (eds) One Hundred Years of Turkish Foreign Policy (1923-2023), Switzerlad: Palgrave Macmillan.
Altunışık, Meliha Benli (2025), “Turkey and the US in the Middle East: A Case for Alliance Change”, All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 42-61, (doi: 10.20991/allazimuth.1621507).
Ataman, Muhittin (2002), “Leadership Change: Özal Leadership and Restructuring in Turkish Foreign Policy”, Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 8–27, Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/alternatives/article/20924#article_cite, (Accessed on: 25/8/2025).
Balta, Evren (2018), “The AKP’s Foreign Policy as Populist Governance”, Middle East Report, Available at: https://www.merip.org/2018/12/the-akps-foreign-policy-as-populist-governance/, (Accessed on: 12/8/2025).
Barnett, Michael (1999), “Culture, Strategy and Foreign Policy Change: Israel’s Road to Oslo”, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 5-36, (doi:10.1177/1354066199005001001).
Beach, Derek and Rasmus Pedersen (2013), Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Bonzon, Ariane (2025), “Turkey: Wanting to Have It Both Ways on Israel”, Le Monde Diplomatique, 2 May. Available at: https://mondediplo.com/2025/05/02turkey, (Accessed on: 23/9/2025).
Çaliş, Şaban and Hüseyin Bağci (2003), “Atatürk’s Foreign Policy Understanding and Application”, Sosyal Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 195-228, Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/susead/article/302927, (Accessed on: 1/2/2025).
Cámara, Manuel (2021), “Turkey and the European Union: A Difficult but Critical Relationship”, CIDOB Notes Internacionals 256, Barcelona Centre for International Affairs.
Cornell, Svante (2018), Erdogan’s Turkey: The Role of a Little-Known Islamist Poet, Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and Silk Road Studies Program, Available at: https://silkroadstudies.org/publications/joint-center-publications/item/13269-erdogans-turkey-the-role-of-a-little-known-islamist-poet.html, (Accessed on: 1/2/2025).
Cuhadar, Esra & Kaarbo, Juliet & Kesgin, Baris & Özkeçeci-Taner, Binnur (2020), “Turkish Leaders and their Foreign Policy Decision-Making Style: A Comparative and Multi-Method Perspective”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 1–27, (doi:10.1080/14683849.2020.1724511).
Dalacoura, K. (2017), A New Phase in Turkish Foreign Policy: Expediency and AKP Survival, [Future Notes: 4] Middle East and North Africa Regional Architecture, Available at: https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/69619/1/Dalacoura_A%20new%20phase%20in%20Turkish%20foreign%20policy_published_2017%20LSERO.pdf, (Accessed on: 1/7/2025).
Dessler, David (1989), “What is at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate?”, International Organization, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 441-473,
        (doi: 10.1017/S0020818300032999).
Đidić, Ajdin and Hasan Kösebalaban (2019), “Turkey’s Rapprochement with Russia: Assertive Bandwagoning”, International Spectator, Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 123–138, (doi:10.1080/03932729.2019.1627070).
Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip (2017), “Western Leaders Have a Choice: Stand With the Terrorists or Stand with the Turkish People”, Guardian, Available at:  https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jul/15/turkey-coup-democracy-recep-tayyip-erdogan, (Accessed on: 1/2/2025).
France 24 (2024), “The Fall of Bashar al-Assad: ‘Turkey Proves, Once Again, that It Cannot Be Ignored”, 20 December,   Available at: https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20241210-bashar-al-assad-s-fall-turkey-proves-once-again-it-can-t-be-ignored-erdogan-syria-islamist-rebels-kurds-sdf-snf-ypg-hts-golani, (Accessed on: 23/9/2025).
Gontijo, Lorenzo, and Barbosa, Roberson (2020), “Erdoğan’s Pragmatism and the Ascension of AKP in Turkey: Islam and Neo-Ottomanism”, Digest of Middle East Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 76-91, (doi:10.1111/dome.12205).
Gullo, Matthew (2012), Turkish Foreign Policy: Neo-Ottomanism 2.0 and the Future of Turkey’s Relations with the West, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, [Master's Thesis, Duke University], Available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10161/5482, (Accessed on: 25/9/2025).
Güney, Aylin and Nazif Mandacı (2013), “The Meta-Geography of the Middle East and North Africa in Turkey’s New Geopolitical Imagination”, Security Dialogue, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 431-448, (doi:10.1177/0967010613499783).
Haboush, J. (2020), “US Criticizes Erdogan for Meeting with Hamas Leadership, Warns of Turkish Isolation”, Al Arabiya English, Available at: https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2020/08/25/US-criticizes-Erdogan-for-meeting-with-Hamas-leadership-warns-of-Turkish-isolation, (Accessed on: 26/8/2025).
Hale, William (2009), “Turkey and the Middle East in the ‘New Era’,” Turkish Insight, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 143-159, (Accessed on: 20/9/2025). (doi: 10.1080/00263200902800435)
Hatipoglu, Emre and Glenn Palmer (2014), “Contextualizing Change in Turkish Foreign Policy: The Promise of the ‘Two-Good’ Theory”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 231–250, (doi:10.1080/09557571.2014.888538).
Hopf, Ted (1998), “The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory”, International Security, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 171–200, (doi:10.2307/2539267).
Ifantis, Kostas and Ioannis Galariotis (2014), The US and Turkey in Search of Regional Strategy: Towards Asymptotic Trajectories, Research Unit on International Security and Cooperation (UNISCI), 36 October, pp. 9-28, Available at: https://gcris.khas.edu.tr/entities/publication/0393977b-dadf-4f50-a25b-96a6568684a4, (Accessed on: 23/9/2025).
İnalcik, Halil (1998), “Turkey Between Europe and the Middle East”, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-7, Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/perception/article/625565, (Accessed on: 23/8/2025).
Jabbour, J. J. (2022), “After Parting Ways: The Coming Frosty Entente in Saudi-Turkish Relations”, Arab Center, Washington D.C., Available at: https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/after-parting-ways-the-coming-frosty-entente-in-saudi-turkish-relations/, (Accessed on: 21/9/2025).
Kahveci, Hayrie and Işık Kuşçu Bonnenfant (2023), “Turkish Foreign Policy Towards Central Asia: An Unfolding of Regionalism and Soft Power,” All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 195-218, (doi:10.20991/allazimuth. 1310530).
Kara, Mehtap (2022), “Linking Turkey’s Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy: The Justice and Development Party’s Political Strategies and their Divergent Foreign Policy Effects”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 529–553, (doi: 10.1080/14683849.2022.2060082).
Kardaş, Ş. and Sinkaya, B. (2024), “Evolution of Türkiye’s Engagement in the Middle Eastern Regional Order: The Normalization Agenda and Beyond”, Journal of World Sociopolitical Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 493-527, (doi: 10.22059/wsps.2024.373676.1422).
Kardaş, Şaban (2010), “Turkey: Redrawing the Middle East Map or Building Sand-Castles?”, Middle East Policy, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 115-136, (doi:10.1111/j.1475-4967.2010.00430.x).
Kenez, Levent (2024), “Figures Indicate Erdogan Gov’t Turns a Blind Eye to Violation of Turkey’s Trade Restrictions on Israel”, Nordic Monitor,Available at: https://nordicmonitor.com/2024/11/32374/, (Accessed on: 14/9/2025).
Kirişci, Kemal (2013), “Arab Uprisings and Completing Turkey's Regional Integration: Challenges and Opportunities for US–Turkish Relations”, Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 189-205, (doi: 10.1080/19448953.2013.775757).
Koç, Nilüfer (2025), “The Kurds and the End of Turkey's Neo-Ottoman Dreams”, National Strategic, Available at:  https://www.natstrat.org/articledetail/publications/the-kurds-and-the-end-of-turkey-s-neo-ottoman-dreams-part-i-207.html, (Accessed on: 9/9/2025).
Köstem, Seçkin (2018), “Different Paths to Regional Hegemony: National Identity Contestation and Foreign Economic Strategy in Russia and Turkey”, Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 726–75, (doi: 10.1080/09692290.2018.1511450).
Kraidy, Marwan and Omer Al-Ghazzi (2013), “Neo-Ottoman Cool: Turkish Popular Culture in the Arab Public Sphere”, Popular Communication, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 17–29, (doi:10.1080/15405702.2013.747940).
Kurki, Milija (2008), Causation in International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kutlay, Mustafa and Ziya Öniş (2021), “Turkish Foreign Policy in a Post-Western Order: Strategic Autonomy or New Forms of Dependence?”, International Affairs, Vol. 97, No. 4, pp. 1085–1104, (doi:10.1093/ia/iiab094).
Mahoney, James (2015), “Process Tracing and Historical Explanation”, Security Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 200-218,
        (doi: 10.1080/09636412.2015.1036610).
Menon, Rajan, and Enders Wimbush (2007), “The US and Turkey: End of an Alliance?”, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 129-144, (doi:10.1080/00396330701437785).
Mikhail, Alan (2020), “Why Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s Love Affair with the Ottoman Empire Should Worry the World”, Time, Available at:  https://time.com/5885650/erdogans-ottoman-worry-world/, (Accessed on: 9/3/2025).
Moshirzadeh, Homeira (2018), “Threat Perceptions and Security Dilemma in the Middle East”, Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 5-33, Available at: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://irfajournal.csr.ir/article_115617.html&ved=2ahUKEwj26Nq9jPKRAxUK1QIHHacyAbIQFnoECB8QAQ&usg=AOvVaw26XLx8JU1qccstF44-qBuq, (Accessed on: 8/6/2025).
Oğuzlu, Tarık (2008), “Middle Easternization of Turkey’s Foreign Policy: Does Turkey Dissociate from the West?”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 3–20, (doi:10.1080/14683840701813960).
Oğuzlu, Tarık (2020), “Turkish Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order”, All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 127-139, (doi:10.20991/allazimuth. 464076).
Pesu, Matti (2019), Introducing Ideational Foreign Policy Analysis: Explorations on the Underlying Ideas of Finnish Foreign Policy, [Doctoral Thesis, Tampere University].
Poghosyan, G. (2018), Review: “Turkey’s Relations with the Middle East: Political Encounters after the Arab Spring”, Perspectivas: Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 18, pp. 44–46, (doi:10.21814/PERSPECTIVAS.111).
Şahin, Mustafa Gokhan (2010), Turkey and Neo-Ottomanism: Domestic Sources, Dynamics and Foreign Policy, [Doctoral Thesis, Florida International University], ProQuest ETD Collection for FIU, https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/dissertations/AAI3470231.
Saraçoğlu, Cenk and Özhan Demirkol (2015), “Nationalism and Foreign Policy Discourse in Turkey Under the AKP Rule: Geography, History and National Identity”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 301-319, (doi:10.1080/13530194.2014.947152).
Singer, Sean R. (2013), “Erdogan's Muse: The School of Necip Fazil Kisakurek”, World Affairs, Vol. 176, No. 4, pp. 81–88, Available at: https://akademyadergisi.com/erdogans-muse-the-school-of-necip-fazil-kisakurek/, (Accessed on: 5/11/2025).
Somer, Murat (2016), “Understanding Turkey’s Democratic Breakdown: Old vs. New and Indigenous vs. Global Authoritarianism”, Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 481–503, (doi:10.1080/14683857.2016.1246548).
Stein, Aaron (2011), “Resetting U.S.-Turkish Relations: Charting a New Way Forward”, Journal of Strategic Security, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1–18,
        (doi: 10.5038/1944-0472.4.1.1).
Stockholm Center for Freedom (SCF) (2017), Turkey’s AKP Slams US Trial: New York Court ‘Zionist,’ Zarrab a ‘CIA Agent’, Stockholm Center for Freedom (SCF), Available at: https://stockholmcf.org/turkeys-akp-slams-us-trial-new-york-court-zionist-zarrab-a-cia-agent/, (Accessed on: 12/3/2017).
Taş, Hakkı (2022), “Erdoğan and the Muslim Brotherhood: An Outside-In Approach to Turkish Foreign Policy in the Middle East”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 23, No. 5, pp. 722–742, (doi:10.1080/14683849.2022.2085096).
Taspinar, Ö. (2009), “Obama’s Turkey Policy: Bringing Credibility to 'Strategic Partnership'”, Insight Turkey, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 13-21, Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/06/03_turkey_taspinar.pdf, (Accessed on: 12/6/2025).
Times of Israel (2025), “Turkey Could Restart Israel Trade if Gaza Peace Proves Permanent, Business Group Says”, Available at: https://www.timesofisrael.com/turkey-could-restart-israel-trade-if-gaza-peace-permanent-business-group-says/#:~:text=When%20Turkey%20first%20applied%20the,of%20$6.8%20billion%20in%202023, (Accessed on: 10/12/2025).
Toal, Gerard (1989), Critical Geopolitics: The Social Construction of Space and Place in the Practice of Statecraft, Ph.D Dissertation, Ithaca, NY: Syracuse University, Available at:
https://surface.syr.edu/geo_etd/38 (Accessed on: 14/9/2025).
Torbakov, Igor (2020), “Perspectives: The Philosophy Behind Erdogan’s Hagia Sophia ‘Reconquest’,” Eurasianet, 27 July, Available at: https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-the-philosophy-behind-erdogans-hagia-sophia-reconquest, (Accessed on: 27/7/2025).
Turkish Statistical Institute (2025), Available at: https://www.tuik.gov.tr/, (Accessed on: 15/4/2025).
Uzer, Umut (2020), “Conservative Narrative: Contemporary Neo-Ottomanist Approaches in Turkish Politics”, Middle East Critique, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 1–16, (doi:10.1080/19436149.2020.1770444).
Wastnidge, Edward (2019), “Transnational Identity Claims, Roles and Strategic Foreign Policy Narratives in the Middle East”, Global Discourse, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 605–625, (doi:10.1332/204378919X15718897799871).
World Bank (2025), Available at: https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/TUR/Year/2022/TradeFlow/EXPIMP/Partner/by-region, (Accessed on: 11/12/2025).
Yabancı, Bilge (2022), “Religion, Nationalism, and Populism in Turkey Under the AKP”, Middle East Institute, Available at:  https://www.mei.edu/publications/religion-nationalism-and-populism-turkey-under-akp, (Accessed on: 10/6/2022).
Yavuz, Hakan (2022), “The Motives Behind the AKP’s Foreign Policy: Neo-Ottomanism and Strategic Autonomy”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 23, No. 5, pp. 659–680, (doi: 10.1080/14683849.2022.2100700).
Yavuz, Hakan (2025), “Erdoğan’s Foreign Policy: Strategy Without Doctrine”, E-International Relations, Available at: https://www.e-ir.info/2025/03/15/erdogans-foreign-policy-strategy-without-doctrine/, (Accessed on: 18/9/2025).
Yeşiltaş, Murat (2013), “The Transformation of the Geopolitical Vision in Turkish Foreign Policy”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 661-687,
        (doi: 10.1080/14683849.2013.862927).
Yilmaz, Ihsan and Galib Bashirov (2018), “The AKP After 15 Years: Emergence of Erdoganism in Turkey”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 9, pp. 1812–1830, (doi: 10.1080/01436597.2018.1447371).
Yücesoy, Vahid (2019), “The Recent Rapprochement between Iran and Turkey: Is It Durable or Is It a Relationship of Convenience?” Turkish Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 274–296, (doi:10.1080/14683849.2019.1657773).
Central Eurasia Studies
Volume 18, Issue 2 - Serial Number 37
February 2026
Pages 377-408

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics