Transformation of the Silk Road and the Change of Cultural Function of Central Asia in New Centuries

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Assistant Professor, Department of History, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran

10.22059/jcep.2024.369595.450184

Abstract

Introduction: Central Asia, despite its proximity to the nomadic world and issues related to the interaction and confrontation between them, In the first Islamic millennium, it was one of the most influential centers in the Islamic world. What is meant by influential is that, in addition to being attractive enough to call Muslim intellectuals and elites, it has also been a pioneer in laying the groundwork for the emergence of indigenous forces. This dynamism is rooted in many factors, including the distinct cultural heritage that this region has been connected to through its geographical location and a network of active roads.
 Entering the new historical era showed stable developements in communication networks and channels of cultural interactions in this land. Although the scope of these changes was not only regional, but due to the special geography of Central Asia and parallel developments in it, all its fields (including political, economic and cultural subjects) underwent extensive changes.
Research question: The coincidence of the above intertwined changes with the transformation of the Silk Road networks has led researchers to a theoretical duality in analyzing the direction of their change; In the sense that majority of them with a decadent view and with the hypothesis of "decline" have raised the issue that the Silk Road has declined in recent centuries due to the strengthening of the coastal system as a powerful competitor and since the material and spiritual development of Central Asia depended on the prosperity of this ancient road, with the decline of this highway, this land (which has no direct connection with the coastal system) is on the verge of widespread decline and backwardness. Despite the popularity of this view, a minority of recent scholars have challenged the theory of the decline of the Silk Road and gone out of their way to deny the decline of the region as a result. The important point in the opinions of both groups of researchers is the acceptance of a causal relationship between the condition of the Silk Road and conditions of the region; That is, assuming the degeneration or continuation of the glory, the status and location of the Silk Road is the cause. The problem of this article is related to this scientific differnce, but due to the belonginig of Central Asia’s to the Islamic world and its dynamic role in this cultural geography, the scope of research has become more limited and examines the relationship between the Silk Road and the cultural situation of the region only from the perspective of the Islamic world. Therefore, the main question is, what effect did the changes of the Silk Road have on the cultural position of Central Asia in the Islamic world? 
Research hypothesis: For better understanding of research structure we should pay attention to different layers of the Islamic world. As we know, this cultural geography consists of a central core and peripheral areas and the cultural status of each is different. Another important point is the geographical location of Central Asia as a link between the center of the Muslim world and large parts of the Islamic peripheries. Considering all these issues, our hypothesis is that "With the evolution of the Silk Road, the cultural evolution between Central Asia and the central world of Islam began to decline and this relationship with Islamic peripheries became progressive and with a positive balance".
Methodology: Since this article is a historical and trend study, the method of historical analysis will be used, but at the same time we will have a glimpse of the theory of social change by Steven Vago to separate the components of changes such as identity, direction, levels, factors and their periods and finally create a better understanding of their overall atmosphere.
Results and discussion: With the entry to the modern centuries and the developements of road networks, regional socio-political developements changed the previous trend. With the emergence of a network of powerful land routes on the northern branch of silk road, with the extensive support of the Russians and at the same time Muslims eager to engage with Central Asia (which had been excluded from the southern branch), intra-religious relations with fellow Muslims of the Islamic world entered a new world. This residual Islamic legacy was attractive to Russian Muslims.
Conclusion: The result we obtained was that the development of the Silk Road, along with the extensive social and political changes, caused a decrease in the cultural flow and dynamic relations with the central world of Islam and at the same time, other neighbors of the Central Asian Muslims in the surrounding Islamic world, due to the formation of new communication networks, the interaction with their countrymen has become more intense and has formed a new form of cultural relations with Central Asia. This whole historical process is as follows from the language of Vago's theory: In the new centuries, the former functional identities changed at the regional and extra-regional levels, and with the skill of the Muslim political powers and colonists, led to a change in the direction of the previous cultural flow.
 Therefore, if we look at the developements from the perspective of the center of the Islamic world, we will follow the hypothesis of cultural decline in the region, but if we look at the world around Islam, we will find efforts that will confirm the hypothesis of those who say about the continuity of cultural glory.

Keywords


A'ini, Sadriddin (1983), Notes, by the Effort of Ali Akbar Saidi Sirjani, Tehran: Agah [in Persian].
A'ini, Sadriddin (1981), History of the Emirs of Bukhara, Edited by Kamal E'ini, Dushanbe: Erfan [Cyrillic].
Badkoobeh Hazareh, Ahmad, Mostafa Arabameri (2020), The Position of Madrasas in the Development of Transoxiana Islamic Culture (Case Study: MirArab Madrasa in Bukhara (1553-1880), Central Eurasia Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2,­ pp. 371-390, (doi:10.22059/jcep.2020.296798.449899).
Barthold, Vasily Vladimirovich ­(1973), Turkestan Down to Mongol Invasion, Translated by Karim Keshavarz, Tehran: Farhang Iran Foundation Publications [in Persian].
Barthold, Vasily Vladimirovich (1997), History of the Turks of Central Asia, translated by Ghafar Hosseini, Tehran, Toos Publishing House, [in Persian].
Barisitz, Stephan (2017), Central Asia and the Silk Road and Decline over Several Millennia, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Bates, Daniel and Fred Plog (1996), Cultural Anthropology, translated by Mohsen Thalathi, Tehran: Elmi Publications [in Persian].
Beckwith, Christopher I. (­2009), Empires of the Silk Road; A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princton: Princton University Press.
Bennigsen, Alexander and Enders Wimbush (1999), Sufis and Commissioners; Sufism in the Soviet Union, translation of Afsana Monfared, Tehran, Cultural Research Office, [in Persian].
Bregel, Yuri (2003), A Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Leiden: Brill.
Burton, Audrey (1997), The Bukharans; A Dynastic, Diplomatic and Commercial History (1550-1702), London & New York: Routledge.
Bukharai, Shams (1998), History of Bukhara, Khoqand, Kashgar; in the Description of the Rule of Amir Haidar in Bukhara, Mohammad Ali Khan in Khoqand and Jahangir Khwaja in Kashgar, corrected by Mohammad Akbar Ashiq, Tehran: Mirath Maktob Publishing House, [in Persian].
Christian, David­­ (­2018), A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia; Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today 1260–2000, USA:  Wiley Blackwell.
Danesh, Ahmad (1988), Navādr al-Vaqā'i, Dushanbe: Danesh Publishing House [Cyrillic].
Frank, Irene, and David Brownstone (1997), Silk Road, translated by Mohsen Thalathi, Tehran: Soroush, [in Persian].
Frank, Allen J. (2012), Bukhara and the Muslims of Russia; Sufism, Education, and Paradox of Islamic Prestige, Leiden: Brill.
Ghafurov, Babajan (1997), Tājīkan, Dushanbe: Erfan, [in Persian].
Grosset, Rene (­1974), Empire of Steppes, translated by Abdul Hossein Meikadeh, Tehran: Book Translation and Publishing Company [in Persian].
Hambly, Gavin (1966), Central Asia, New York: Delacorte Press, [in Persian].
Joveini, Atamalek (­2008), History of Jahanghosha, Vol. 1, Edited by Mohammad Qazvini, Tehran: Hermes, [in Persian]. 
Karminegi, Mohamad Vafa (2013), Tohfe Khānī, Edited by Mansour Sefatgol (in Collaboration with Nobuaki Kendo), Tokyo: Institute of Asian and African Languages and Cultures [in Persian].
Khandmir, Giath al-din (1983), Ḥabīb Al-siyar fī Akhbār Afrād Al-Bashar, Under the Supervision of Mohammad Debir Siyaghi, Vol. 4, Tehran: Khayyam, [in Persian].
Kaveh, Ali, Ghasem Torabi, Alireza Rezaei (2021), China Silk Road Initiative and Hegemony in Central Asia, Central Eurasia Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 75-98, (doi:10.22059/jcep.2021.314577.449964)
Khonji, Fazl-ollah (2004), Mehmānname Bukhārā, By the Efforts of Manouchehr Sotoudeh, Tehran: Book Translation and Publishing Company, [in Persian].
Kugelgen, Anke Von, Kemper Michael and Allen J. Frank (1998), Muslim Culture in Russia and Central Asia, Vol. 2, Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag.
Kostenko, Captain Atamazhor (2013), Description of Central Asia and the Spread of Russian Civilization in It, translated by Mardos Daudkhanov, by the Efforts of Mohammad Hasan Khan Sani al-Doulah, by the Efforts of Dr. Gholamhossein Zargirinejad, Tehran: Institute of Research and Development of Human Sciences, [in Persian].
Lapidus, Iram (2002), History of Islamic Societies, translated by Ali Bakhtiari, Tehran: Etelaa't, [in Persian].
Levi, Scott (2017), The Rise and Fall of Khogand (­1709-1878), Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press.
Levi, Scott (2020), The Bukharan Crisis, Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press.
Manz, Beatrice (1998), Central Asia in Historical Perspective, USA: West View Press.
Matti, Rudolph (2022), Politics and Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk against Silver, translated by Mani Salehi Allameh, Tehran: Farhang Javid, [in Persian].
Mazaheri, Ali (­2009), Silk Road, translated by Malik Nasser Nuban, Tehran: Research Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies, [in Persian].
Millward, James (2013), The Silk Road; A Very Short Introduction, United State of America: Oxford University Press.
Monshi, Mohamad Yusef (­2001), Tazkire Moqimkhānī, edited by Fereshte Sarafan, Tehran: Mirath Maktob [in Persian].
Natanzi, Moeen­ Al-din (1957), Montakhab Al-Tawārīkh Moeenī, Tehran: Khayyam, [in Persian].
Paktachi, Ahmad (2013), ­Sufism Currents in Central Asia, Tehran: Al-Hadi Cultural, Art and International Publishing Institute, [in Persian].
Rais Nia, Rahim (­2008), Jadidiye Movement in Tatarestan, Tehran: Center for Documents and History of Diplomacy, [in Persian].  
Samarkandi, Kama al-din (2004), Matlai' Sa'dein va Majmai' Bahrein, corrected by Abdul Hossein Nawai, Tehran: Institute of Human Sciences and Cultural Studies, [in Persian].
Seyyed Baljavani, Mohammad (2005), Tārīkh e Nāfee', corrected by Ahrar Mokhtarov, Tehran: Diplomatic Records and History Center, [in Persian].
Soucek, Svat (­2018), History of Inner Asia, Translated by S.F. Ebrahimi, Tehran: SAMT, [in Persian].
Starr, Frederick (2013), Lost enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Takmil Homayoun, Naser (2004), Khāwrazm, Tehran: Cultural Research Office, [in Persian].
Vago, Steven (1993), An Introduction to the Theories and Models of Social Changes, translated by Ahmadi Ghorozizad, Tehran: Jihad Academic Publications Institute, [in Persian].
Weismann, Itzchak (­2007), The Naqshbandiyya; Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition, New York: Routledge.
Wilde, Andreas (‌2016), What Is Beyond the River? Power, Authority, and Social Order in Transoxania 18th–19th Centuries, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien Druck und Bindung: Prime Rate kft., Budapest.