دیپلماسی شهروندی و تنش‌های ارمنی‌آذری: چالش‌ها و فرصت‌ها

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشیار گروه روابط بین‌الملل، دانشکدۀ علوم اقتصادی و اداری، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران

2 دانشجوی دکتری روابط بین‌الملل، دانشکدۀ علوم اقتصادی و اداری، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران

10.22059/jcep.2025.379591.450238

چکیده

تنش و اختلاف میان جمهوری آذربایجان و ارمنستان همواره قفقاز جنوبی را در بحران‌های دائمی قرار داده است. بحران قره‌باغ، به‌عنوان یکی از مهم‌ترین بحران‌های بین‌المللی پس از جنگ سرد، دو دهه درگیری میان این دو کشور را به‌دنبال داشته است. با تصرف منطقۀ قره‌باغ توسط جمهوری آذربایجان در سال 2023، ارمنستان مجبور به پذیرش وضعیت جدید شد، اما اختلاف‌ها هنوز به‌طور کامل حل نشده است و مسائل دیگری مانند راه‌گذر زنگه‌زور و قومیت‌های مرزی بر روابط سایه افکنده‌اند. ریشه‌داربودن این اختلاف‌ها سبب شده است که دوره‌های صلح به وضعیت «آتش زیر خاکستر» تبدیل شود. تلاش‌های دیپلماتیک رسمی در دهه‌های گذشته بی‌نتیجه بوده است و در این وضعیت، دیپلماسی غیررسمی، به‌ویژه دیپلماسی شهروندی که تجربۀ موفقی در برخی مناطق داشته است، جلب توجه می‌کند. در این نوشتار رابطۀ میان دیپلماسی شهروندی و کاهش تنش‌های ارمنی‌آذری را بررسی و تحلیل می‌کنیم که چگونه این نوع دیپلماسی می‌تواند بر روند صلح و حل اختلاف‌ها تأثیر بگذارد؟ فرضیۀ نوشتار این است که دیپلماسی شهروندی، در صورت اجرای بهینه، می‌تواند فرصت‌هایی برای صلح پایدار و همکاری میان ارمنستان و جمهوری آذربایجان فراهم کند. با بررسی عامل‌ها و چالش‌های موجود، در این نوشتار چگونگی تغییر نگرش‌های منفی و کاهش تنش‌های تاریخی را به‌وسیلۀ  برنامه‌های مشترک و روابط بین‌فردی تحلیل می‌کنیم. روش پژوهش کیفی و از نوع اکتشافی‌تحلیلی است و به تحلیل دلایل ناکارآمدی دیپلماسی شهروندی در موضوع مورد بحث می‌پردازیم.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Citizen Diplomacy and Armenian-Azeri Tensions: Challenges and Opportunities

نویسندگان [English]

  • Ali Omidi 1
  • Mojtaba Roustaei 2
1 Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Faculty of Administrative Sciences and Economics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
2 A Ph.D. Candidate, International Relations, Faculty of Administrative Sciences and Economics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
چکیده [English]

Introduction: Tensions and disputes between the Republic of Azerbaijan and Armenia have long plagued the South Caucasus region with constant crises. The Nagorno-Karabakh crisis, one of the most significant international crises since the Cold War, has resulted in two decades of conflict between these two countries. During the 2023 conflict, with Azerbaijan's seizure of the Karabakh region, Armenia was forced to accept the new political conditions. However, the differences have not yet fully resolved and conflicts continue. Other issues, such as the Zangezur Corridor and border disputes, have also strained relations between the two countries. The deep-rooted nature of these differences has made the brief periods of peace between the two countries seem like “fire under the ashes” that can flare up at any moment. Official diplomatic efforts in the past decades have been fruitless, and in this situation, using the capacities of informal diplomacy, especially citizen diplomacy, which has had successful experiences in some regions, is noteworthy.
Research question: What is the role of citizen diplomacy in deescalating international tensions and how can citizen diplomacy help reduce tensions between Armenia and Azerbaijan?
Research hypothesis: Citizen diplomacy can lead to the reduction in Armenian-Azeri tensions and create opportunities for cooperation and lasting peace, provided that sufficient support is provided and the historical obstacles are removed.
Methodology and theoretical framework: The research method of this article is qualitative with an exploratory-analytical approach. In other words, the data of the article is non-quantitative and the researcher relies more on historical data. It is exploratory because just a few preliminary works have been done in this field and the present study is considered one of the first comprehensive works in this field. Within a theoretical framework, the article examines identity theory in a constructivist way that examines how collective and individual identities influence the political behavior of societies and countries. The article argues that citizen diplomacy serves as an effective tool for changing negative images and reducing tensions between conflicting identities. This type of diplomacy includes direct people-to-people interaction, cultural and educational exchange programs, community-based dialogues, and the use of media and social networks. These tools help build mutual understanding and respect between different individuals and communities, as well as reduce misunderstandings and increase international cooperation.
Results and discussion: The national identity of the Republic of Azerbaijan is based on the territorial integrity and retake of Nagorno-Karabakh, while the national identity of Armenia is based on the defense of the Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh. By promoting hatred and a negative image of the other country, the media and propaganda of both countries have helped to reinforce opposing identities and deepen distrust and hostility between the two nations. The emphasis on the historical crimes and nationalist narratives in the educational and cultural systems of the two countries has increased tension and continued conflict.
So far, there have been few attempts to reduce tensions between the Republic of Azerbaijan and Armenia through citizen diplomacy, which includes programs by non-governmental organizations, research institute and universities with the support of international institutions. These programs include the European Partnership for the Peaceful Resolution of the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict, the Conflict Monitoring Center, and the "Letters for Peace" initiative, work through dialogue, cultural and educational exchanges, and joint projects to reduce tensions with the aim of strengthening informal contacts and mutual understanding between citizens and elites of the two countries. However, these efforts have not been fully successful due to political, security, economic and historical constranits. The complex history of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, mutual distrust, the promotion of nationalist narratives by the media and the lack of coordination between citizen and governmental diplomacy are among the reasons for the failure of these programs. In addition, regional and international factors and the conflicting interests of interested countries have added to the complexity of the crisis and the continuation of the conflict. The limited participation of ordinary people and an emphasis on national interests have also hindered the effectiveness of citizen diplomacy. For these efforts to succeed, new strategies, greater support, and broader international and local cooperation are needed. This includes strengthening cultural and educational exchanges between the two countries, creating common spaces for inter-governmental dialogues, and making optimal use of traditional and social media to promote a culture of peace and mutual understanding. Increasing awareness, reducing misunderstandings, and promoting peaceful ideas can help strengthen communications and reduce tensions between the two countries.
Conclusion: The findings of this study show that various citizen diplomacy programs, such as cultural exchanges, educational cooperation and joint projects can gradually reduce negative perceptions and create a space for dialogue and understanding. By increasing people-to-people interactions and strengthening cultural ties, hostile identities can gradually be transformed and the ground for cooperation and peaceful coexistence can be created. Citizen diplomacy can act as a bridge for peace and understanding between Azerbaijan and Armenia and help create a new and positive atmosphere in the relations between these two countries. This approach uses various tools and increases human and cultural interactions, including cultural and educational exchange programs, economic and trade cooperation, media and information diplomacy, strengthening the role of civil institutions, holding educational workshops and seminars, developing joint environmental projects, encouraging international and regional dialogues and promoting multi-cultural and multi-lingual education which can play a key role in developing relations between the two peoples and open new horizons for peaceful co-existence.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Citizenship Diplomacy
  • Karabakh War
  • South Caucasus
  • Armenia
  • Azerbaijan Republic
Abdujabborov, Shokhrukhbek (2024), “The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and Foreign Mediation to Resolve and Reduce Critical Situation”, Nordic Academic Materials Proceedings, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 1-9, Available at: https://research.nordicuniversity.org/index.php/nordic/article/view/513 (Accessed on: 27/8/2024).
Abushov, Kavus and Azar Babayev (2024), “Diminishing Justice and Third-Party Intervention: Explaining Russia’s Impartial Stance During the 2020 Karabakh War”, (doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2024.2329881)
Adesina, Olubukola S. (2017), “Foreign Policy in an Era of Digital Diplomacy”, African Identities, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 1-13, (doi: 10.1007/s10308-018-0527-4).
Aliyev, Ilkin (2024), “Peace Bridges by Letters – Letters for Peace Program (Armenia and Azerbaijan)”, Available at: https://www.peaceinsight.org/en/articles/peace-bridges-by-letters-letters-for-peace-program-armenia-and-azerbaijan/?location=&theme=culture-media-advocacy, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Krivosheev, Denis (2020), “Armenia/Azerbaijan: Decapitation and war Crimes in Gruesome Videos must Be Urgently Investigated”, Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/12/armenia-azerbaijan-decapitation-and-war-crimes-in-gruesome-videos-must-be-urgently-investigated-2/, (Accessed on: 1/11/2024).
Aydın, Mustafa (2023), “The Changing Geopolitics of the South Caucasus”, From: Changing Geopolitics of the South Caucasus after the Second Karabakh War. Prospect for Regional Cooperation and/or Rivalry. Edited by: Michelsen, Available at: https://open.cmi.no/cmi-xmlui/handle/11250/3088008, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Barkhudaryan, V. (2008), Armenian History: Modern Period. 9th Grade Textbook, Macmillan Armenia.
Barkhudaryan, V. (2007), Armenian History: New Period. 8th Grade Textbook, Macmillan Armenia.
Blahova, Pavlina (2019), “Nagorno-Karabakh: Obstacles to the Resolution of the Frozen Conflict”, Asia Europe Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 69-85, (doi:10.1007/s10308-018-0527-4).
Cornell, Svante (2000), Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, Curzon Press.
De Waal, Thomas (2019), The Caucasus: An Introduction (2nd Ed.), Oxford University Press.
De Waal, Thomas (2003), Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War, New York University Press.
EPF Armenia (2013), “Glossary of Hate Speech in Media of Armenia and Azerbaijan”, Eurasia Partnership Foundation, Available at: https://epfarmenia.am/sites/default/files/Document/Glossary_of_Hate_Speech_in_Media_of_Armenia, (Accessed on: 1/11/2024).
Eurasia Partnership Foundation (2014), “Glossary of Hate Speech in the Media of Armenia and Azerbaijan a Study on Hate Speech in the Media of Armenia and Azerbaijan”, Yervan Press Club, Available at: https://ypc.am/upload/GLOSSARY_eng.pdf, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Geukjian, Ohannes (2020), “Stillborn Peace in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Limits of Official Diplomacy to Resolve the Conflict”, Available at: https://armenianweekly.com/2020/09/27/stillborn-peace-in-nagorno-karabakh-and-the-limits-of-official-diplomacy-to-resolve-the-conflict/, (Accessed on: 7/11/2024).
Geybullayeva, Arzu (2012), “Nagorno Karabakh 2.0: How New Media and Track Two Diplomacy Initiatives are Fostering Change”, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 176-185, (doi:10.1080/13602004.2012.694663).
Ghaplanyan, Irina (2010), “Empowering and Engaging Civil Society in Conflict Resolution: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh”, in: International Negotiation, Vol. 15, No, 1, pp, 81-102 Available at: https://brill.com/view/journals/iner/15/1/article-p81_5.xml, (Accessed on: 7/12/2024).
Ghazaryan, Flora & Mirkamran Huseynli (2022), “Armenian and Azerbaijani History Textbooks: Time for a Change”, Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370131240_Armenian_and_Azerbaijani_History_Textbooks_Time_for_a_Change (Accessed on: 5/11/2024).
Goksu, Fatih (2020), “Intercultural Mobility and European Identity: Impact of the Erasmus Exchange Programme in Terms of Cultural Differences”, Central European Journal of Communication, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 77-94 (doi: https://doi.org/10.19195/1899-5101.13.1(25).6).
Fakhri, Hossein and Salar Sadeghi (2017), “International Criminal Responsibility for the Crimes Committed in Khojaly”, Central Eurasia Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 325-340, Available at: https://www.sid.ir/paper/151268/fa, (Accessed on: 24/11/2024) [in Persian].
Fearon, J and A. Wendth (2005), Rationalism V. Constructivism: A Skeptical View. in: Handbook of International Relation, London: Sage Publication.
Fukuyama, Francis (2018), The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment, Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Hanada, Shingo (2022), International Higher Education in Citizen Diplomacy, Palgrave Macmillan.
Hopmann, T. P. (2014), “The OSCE’s Role in Conflict Management: Assessing Past Strengths and Current Challenges”, OSCE Yearbook 2014, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg/IFSH, pp. 217–230, Available at: https://ifsh.de/file-CORE/documents/yearbook/english/14/Hopmann_2014-en_S.pdf, (Accessed on: 4/11/2024).
Imagine Dialogue (2019), “Our Methodology”, Center for Conflict Transformation, Available at: https://www.imaginedialogue.com/who-we-are/methodology/, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Jović-Lazić, Ana and Stefan Bošković (2024), “Azerbaijan’s Foreign Policy Positioning Towards Russia and Its Impact on the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War: A Hedging Strategy”, The Review of International Affairs, Vol. 75, No. 1190, pp. 55-82, (doi: https://doi.org/10.18485/iipe_ria.2024.75.1190.3).
Karlinsky, Ariel and Orsola Torrisi (2023), “The Casualties of War: An Excess Mortality Estimate of Lives Lost in the 2020 Nagorno‑Karabakh Confict”, Population Research and Policy Review, Vol. 42, No. 41, pp. 1-24, (doi: 10.1007/s11113-023-09790-2).
Koslowskui, R. and F. Kratochwil (1995), “Understanding Change in International Politics”, in: R. N. Lebow and T. Risse Kappen, eds., International Relation theory and the End of Cold War, New York: Columbia University Press.
Knight, Jane (2022), Knowledge Diplomacy in International Relations and Higher Education, Springer.
Kovinthan Levi, Thursica (2022), “The Intersecting Roles of Education in Conflict”, Catherine Vanner & Spogmai Akseer & Thursica Kovinthan Levi (ed.), Teaching Peace and Conflict: The Multiple Roles of School Textbooks in Peacebuilding, Springer.
Lepgold, J. and M. Nincic (2001), Beyond the Ivory Tower, New York: Columbia University.
Mahboobi, Ghorbanali, and Seyed Mohammadreza Mousavi (2013), "The Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran Regarding the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict", National Conference on Geopolitics of Southwest Asia: Issues, Developments, and Perspectives, available at: https://civilica.com/doc/238810, (accessed on: 26/12/2024) [in Persian].
Mammadova, S. (2016), “Creating the "Enemy Nation": The Difficult Historical Legacies of Armenian-Azerbaijani Relations”, Caucasus Analytical Digest, No. 84, pp. 8-13, Available at: https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/89499, (Accessed on: 27/8/2024).
Matamoros-Fernández and John Farkas (2021), “Racism, Hate Speech, and Social Media: A Systematic Review and Critique”, Television & New Media, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 205-224, (doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230).
Mikaelian, H. (2011), “Nationalist Discourse in Armenia: Images of Turkey and Azerbaijan Are Equally Hostile and Demonized”, Regnum, Available at:  https://regnum.ru/news/1413303, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024) [in Russian].
Moeinabadi, Hossein and Milad Sedri Ali Babalou (2015), “The Role of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia”, Central Eurasia Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 85-106, (doi: 10.22059/jcep.2015.54963) [in Persian].
Oganova, Lybov (2021), “Hate Speech on the Internet from the Side of Azerbaijan during and after the Nagorno Karabakh War 2020”, American University of Armenia, Available at: https://baec.aua.am/files/2021/10/Lyubov-Oganova-Hate-Speech-on-the-Internet-from-the-Side-of-Azerbaijan-During-and-After-the-Nagorno-Karabakh-War.pdf, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Okechukwu, Groupson-Paul UC and Peter Offu (2021), “Contents and Applications of Citizens Diplomacy and Transformation Agenda: A Contemporary Discourse”, Journal of Educational Research and Policy Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 115-135, Available at: https://journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/ESCJERPS/article/view/2815, (Accessed on: 27/8/2024).
Ogunnubi, Olusola and Uchenna A. Aja (2022), “Citizen Diplomacy in Nigeria-South Africa Relation: Confronting the Paradox of Xenophobia”, Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp.133-151, (doi: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/1018).
Prudence Chou, Chuing and Jonathan Spangler (2018), Cultural and Educational Exchanges between Rival Societies: Cooperation and Competition in an Interdependent World, Springer Singapore.
Seyidov, Ilgar (2023), “The Role of the Media Following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War: The Cases of AzadliqRadiosu and MeydanTV News Sites in Azerbaijan”, Istanbul University Journal of Communication Sciences, Vol. 65, pp. 89-107, (doi: https://doi.org/10.26650/CONNECTIST2023-1347779).
Sivertsen, Kim (2015), “20 Years in The  Eye of the Storm the Nansen Dialogue Network 1995-2015”, Nansen Center for Peace and Dialogue, Available at: https://peace.no/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/20-Years-in-the-Eye-of-the-Storm.pdf, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
Parveen, Huma (2021), “Social Media and Peace”, In A. Ahmed (Ed.), Peace Education in the 21st Century, pp. 88-98, Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353515160_Social_Media_and_Peace, (Accessed on: 28/12/2024),
Pashayeva, Gulshan (2012), “Assessing the Impact of Track Two Initiatives on the Nagorno-Karabakh Peace Process”, Turkish Policy Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 105-119, Available at: http://turkishpolicy.com/files/articlepdf/assessing-the-impact-of-track-two-initiatives-on-the-nagorno-karabakh-peace-process-fall-2012-en.pdf, (Accessed on: 27/8/2024).
Public Report (2020), “Organized Hate Speech and Animosity Towards Ethnic Armenians in Azerbaijan as Root Causes of Ethnically-Based Torture and Inhumane Treatment by the Azerbaijani Armed Forces”, Available at: https://ombuds.am/images/files/2032f021fe81176414a649d588ad0e86.pdf, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024) [in Armenian].
Riordan, Shaun (2019), Cyberdiplomacy: Managing Security and Governance Online, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Rodríguez-Davis, Laura (2023), “Reviewing Conflict Coverage and Representation in Northern Ireland’s Media”, Media Diversity Institute, Available at: https://www.media-diversity.org/reviewing-conflict-coverage-and-representation-in-northern-irelands-media/, (Accessed on: 27/8/2024).
Sahakyan, N. (2023), “The Rhetorical Face of Enmity: The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and the Dehumanization of Armenians in the Speeches of Ilham Aliyev”, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 863-882, (doi: 10.1080/14683857.2022.2153402)
Sayfutdinova, Leyla (2011), “Good and Bad Armenians: Representation of the Karabakh Conflict in Azerbaijani Literature”, in: Changing Identities: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Edited by: Viktor Voronkov, Sophia Khutsishvili, John Horan, Heinrich Böll Stiftung South Caucasus, pp. 15-40.
Saunders, Harold H. and Parker Priya Narayan (2011), “The Sustained Dialogue Model: Transforming Relationships, Designing Change”, in: Resolving Community Conflicts and Problems, Edited by: Roger Lohmann & Jon Van Til. New York: Columbia University Press.
Seyidov, Ilgar (2023), The Role of the Media Following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War: The Cases of AzadliqRadiosu and MeydanTV News Sites in Azerbaijan, Istanbul University Journal of Communication Sciences, Vol. 65, pp. 107-125, (doi: 10.26650/CONNECTIST2023-1347779).
Transparency (2022), “Anti-Armenian Xxenophobia and Racism in Azerbaijan”, Transparency International Anticorruption Center, Available at: https://transparency.am/en/publication/335, (Accessed on: 7/10/2024).
U.S. Congressional Research Service (2021), “Armenia and Azerbaijan: The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict”, Congressional Research Service, Available at: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R46651.pdf, (Accessed on: 3/11/2024).
Valizadeh, Akbar and Fatemeh Erfani (2024), “The Causes of Russia’s Shift in Policy Regarding the First and Second Nagorno-Karabakh Wars”, Central Eurasia Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 391-416, (doi: 10.22059/jcep.2023.361283.450151) [in Persian].
Wendt, Alexander (1994), “Collective Identity Formation and the International State”, American Political Science Review, Vol. 88, No. 2, pp. 384-396, (doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2944711).
Zaki, Yashar and Ahad Pashalo (2018), “The Role of Iran's Mediation in the Geopolitical Crisis of Nagorno-Karabakh”, Geography Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 53, pp. 133-150 (doi: 13971217178077) [in Persian].